Cold Medicine Safe for Pregnancy

Quick verdict: ⚠️ Talk to your doctor first. Cold medicine can be used in pregnancy, but safety depends on the specific ingredient, dosage, and trimester, so you’ll want professional guidance before taking any product.

It’s 2 a.m., you’re sniffling, and the pharmacy aisle is lit with rows of “cold relief” boxes. You glance at the label, wonder if it’s okay for the little one you’re already carrying, and feel a wave of anxiety. You’re not alone—many expectant parents search “cold medicine safe for pregnancy” in the middle of the night, hoping for a clear answer. The discomfort of a cold is amplified when you're pregnant, making sleep elusive and energy levels plummet, and the natural instinct is to reach for relief.

Below, we break down what the leading health authorities say about cold medicine during pregnancy, how safety changes across trimesters, recommended dosages, and gentler ways to soothe a congested nose. Whether you’ve already taken a dose or you’re deciding whether to buy one, we’ve got the evidence‑based guidance you need, plus alternatives that won’t make you wonder. Our goal is to empower you with clear information, so you can make informed decisions about your health and your baby's well-being.

We’ll also compare popular cold‑relief products side‑by‑side, so you can see at a glance which are considered pregnancy‑friendly and which you might want to avoid. Remember: this article is for informational purposes only; always discuss any medication with your obstetric provider, especially if you have underlying health conditions or are taking other prescription medications.

What is cold medicine?

Cold medicine is an umbrella term for over‑the‑counter (OTC) products that relieve symptoms of the common cold, such as congestion, runny nose, cough, fever, and sore throat. Most formulations combine several active ingredients—pain relievers (acetaminophen or ibuprofen), decongestants (pseudoephedrine, phenylephrine), antihistamines (diphenhydramine, chlorpheniramine), and cough suppressants (dextromethorphan). The purpose is to make you feel better while your immune system clears the virus, providing symptomatic relief rather than curing the viral infection itself.

Pregnant people often reach for these combos because a cold can feel miserable, and untreated symptoms sometimes interfere with sleep and nutrition. However, not all ingredients are created equal for pregnancy. Some, like ibuprofen, are generally avoided, while others, such as acetaminophen, have a long safety record. Understanding each component helps you decide what, if anything, is appropriate for you. It's crucial to be aware that combination products can contain ingredients that are individually safe, but together, or in certain trimesters, might pose risks.

Is cold medicine safe during pregnancy?

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The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) notes that untreated colds rarely cause complications for the fetus, but severe congestion can affect maternal sleep and nutrition, which are important for fetal growth. Therefore, a balanced approach—relief when needed, but minimal exposure—is recommended. The physiological changes during pregnancy, such as increased blood volume and nasal congestion, can make a simple cold feel much worse, prompting the need for effective yet safe symptom management.

In short, “cold medicine safe for pregnancy” is not a blanket yes or no. Ingredients like acetaminophen are broadly considered safe, while decongestants such as pseudoephedrine are generally discouraged in the first trimester and used with caution later. Always check the label, and discuss any medication with your provider before you start. They can help you weigh the benefits of symptom relief against any potential, even if small, risks to your pregnancy.

Understanding common cold medicine ingredients

To navigate the pharmacy aisle confidently, it helps to know what each common ingredient does and its general safety profile during pregnancy:

• Pain Relievers/Fever Reducers: Acetaminophen (Tylenol) is generally considered safe throughout pregnancy when taken at recommended doses. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) like ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin) and naproxen (Aleve) are generally avoided, especially in the first trimester due to potential miscarriage risk, and strictly after 20 weeks due to risks to the fetal kidneys and heart (specifically premature closure of the ductus arteriosus).
• Decongestants: Pseudoephedrine (Sudafed) and phenylephrine (Neo-Synephrine, often found in "Daytime" formulas) work by constricting blood vessels to reduce swelling in nasal passages. Because they can also constrict blood vessels elsewhere, they are generally avoided in the first trimester due to theoretical concerns about blood flow to the placenta, and used with caution later due to potential effects on maternal blood pressure.
• Antihistamines: These block histamine, reducing runny nose, sneezing, and watery eyes. First-generation antihistamines like diphenhydramine (Benadryl) and chlorpheniramine are often found in night-time cold formulas and are generally considered low-risk for occasional use, though they can cause drowsiness. Second-generation antihistamines like loratadine (Claritin) and cetirizine (Zyrtec) are also generally considered safe and cause less drowsiness.
• Cough Suppressants: Dextromethorphan (DM, found in Robitussin DM) is generally considered safe for short-term use in pregnancy to quiet a dry cough. Guaifenesin (Mucinex), an expectorant, helps thin mucus, making it easier to clear; its safety profile is less established but often considered acceptable after the first trimester by many providers.
• Expectorants: Guaifenesin (Mucinex) helps to thin and loosen mucus, making it easier to cough up. While generally considered low-risk by many providers, especially after the first trimester, robust safety data in pregnancy is somewhat limited.

Opting for single-ingredient products is often the safest approach, as it allows you to target specific symptoms without exposure to unnecessary medications.

Is cold medicine safe during first trimester?

During the first trimester, the embryo undergoes organogenesis, the period when most major birth defects can arise as vital organs and systems are forming. Because data on many OTC decongestants are limited, ACOG advises avoiding pseudoephedrine and phenylephrine unless a doctor says the benefit outweighs the risk. This caution is due to theoretical concerns about vasoconstriction potentially affecting placental blood flow and early fetal development. Acetaminophen‑based products for fever or mild pain are considered safe when taken at recommended doses, making them the preferred first-line treatment for pain and fever during this critical window.

If you’ve already taken a single dose of an OTC cold combo before realizing you were pregnant or before fully understanding the risks, stay calm—one dose is unlikely to cause harm. Keep a record of what you took (ingredients and dosage) and discuss it with your obstetrician at your next visit. They can assess any potential exposure and advise you on next steps, reassuring you and providing personalized guidance. Always prioritize non-pharmacological remedies in the first trimester whenever possible.

Cold medicine dosage for pregnant women

When a provider endorses a specific cold product, the standard adult dosage is usually appropriate for pregnant adults as well, but always with the caveat of using the lowest effective dose for the shortest possible duration. For example, an acetaminophen‑based cold medicine may contain 325 mg of acetaminophen per tablet; the typical safe limit is up to 3 000 mg per day (about 6‑9 tablets), not exceeding 10 days without medical advice. It's critical to ensure you're not inadvertently taking acetaminophen from multiple sources, as this can lead to accidental overdose.

Decongestants like pseudoephedrine are typically limited to 60 mg every 4–6 hours, not exceeding 240 mg per day, but many clinicians prefer to avoid them entirely in early pregnancy and use them sparingly, if at all, later on. Phenylephrine, often found in “daytime” formulas, is generally considered less effective orally and its safety profile is not as well‑established for pregnancy, so it’s best used only under strict guidance. For cough, dextromethorphan is typically used at doses of 10-20 mg every 4 hours or 30 mg every 6-8 hours, not exceeding 120 mg in 24 hours.

Always read the label for the exact amount of each active ingredient, and never combine multiple products that contain the same component (e.g., two acetaminophen‑containing medicines). When in doubt, a quick call to your pharmacist or obstetric provider can provide clarity and peace of mind.

Cold medicine safety during breastfeeding

For many breastfeeding parents, the concern shifts from the placenta to breast milk. Fortunately, most OTC cold medicines are considered compatible with breastfeeding, but it's still wise to choose carefully. Acetaminophen and ibuprofen (after the immediate postpartum period) are generally safe. Antihistamines like loratadine (Claritin) and fexofenadine (Allegra) are preferred due to minimal transfer into milk and less sedating effects on the infant. Diphenhydramine (Benadryl) can cause drowsiness in both parent and baby, so use with caution and monitor your infant.

Decongestants like pseudoephedrine and phenylephrine can decrease milk supply, especially with regular use, and may cause irritability or jitters in some infants. For this reason, many providers recommend avoiding them, or using them very sparingly. When taking any medication while breastfeeding, aim for the lowest effective dose, consider taking it immediately after a feeding, and watch your baby for any unusual fussiness or drowsiness.

What brand of cold medicine is safe for pregnancy?

Brands that market themselves as “Pregnancy‑Safe” typically contain only acetaminophen and a mild antihistamine, or are single-ingredient acetaminophen products. Products such as Tylenol Cold (acetaminophen + chlorpheniramine, a mild antihistamine) are often listed as acceptable by the FDA for short‑term use. However, even “safe” brands should be taken at the lowest effective dose and only when needed, and always after reviewing the full ingredient list to ensure no hidden components. The key isn't the brand name itself, but the active ingredients within.

Other popular combos like DayQuil (acetaminophen + phenylephrine + dextromethorphan) and NyQuil (acetaminophen + dextromethorphan + doxylamine, a sedating antihistamine) contain decongestants and sedating antihistamines, which may be less desirable in early pregnancy or if you need to be alert. Always verify the active ingredients on the "Drug Facts" label, looking for single-ingredient solutions first. If a product contains multiple ingredients, ensure each one has been cleared by your provider for your specific trimester and health status.

Risks of taking cold medicine while pregnant

Potential risks depend on the ingredient and the trimester. Decongestants, particularly pseudoephedrine, can cause elevated maternal blood pressure and, in rare cases, reduced blood flow to the placenta, especially if you already have high blood pressure or preeclampsia. While studies on birth defects linked to decongestants are mixed, the general recommendation remains to avoid them in the first trimester. Antihistamines may cause drowsiness, which can affect daily functioning, though most first‑generation antihistamines (like diphenhydramine) are considered low-risk for occasional use.

Acetaminophen, when overused or taken in excessive doses, has been linked in some studies to rare developmental concerns, but short‑term use at recommended doses remains the standard of care and is considered safe. NSAIDs like ibuprofen are a significant concern after 20 weeks of pregnancy due to the risk of premature closure of the fetal ductus arteriosus, a vital blood vessel in the baby's heart, which can lead to serious heart and kidney problems. Rarely, allergic reactions or drug‑interaction issues can arise, especially if you’re taking prescription medications for conditions like hypertension or thyroid disease. Always review all medications, including OTC cold remedies, with your healthcare team to ensure no harmful interactions.

Cold medicine safety during second trimester

In the second trimester, the fetus’s major organs are already formed, and the risk of teratogenicity (causing birth defects) from medication generally decreases. Many clinicians become more comfortable prescribing certain decongestants if symptoms are severe and other remedies have failed. ACOG notes that pseudoephedrine can be considered after 20 weeks if the benefit clearly outweighs the risk, but it should still be limited to the lowest effective dose and used for the shortest duration possible, with careful monitoring of maternal blood pressure. Phenylephrine remains less preferred due to its questionable oral efficacy and less established safety profile.

Acetaminophen‑based combos remain the first line for fever or mild pain, and antihistamines such as chlorpheniramine, loratadine, or cetirizine are generally considered safe for persistent runny nose or allergy symptoms. Nonetheless, continue to monitor blood pressure and watch for any unusual symptoms or side effects, and always consult your provider before introducing new medications.

Cold medicine safety during third trimester

In the third trimester, while major organ development is complete, new concerns arise. The main concern with decongestants is the potential to affect labor and maternal blood pressure. Some studies suggest pseudoephedrine may increase the risk of preterm labor or uterine contractions, though evidence is not conclusive. Because of this, many providers recommend avoiding decongestants in the final weeks of pregnancy unless absolutely necessary and under strict medical supervision. Furthermore, NSAIDs (ibuprofen, naproxen) are strictly contraindicated from 20 weeks onward due to the risk of premature closure of the fetal ductus arteriosus, which can lead to pulmonary hypertension in the newborn.

Acetaminophen remains safe for occasional use to manage pain and fever, and non‑sedating antihistamines (e.g., loratadine, cetirizine) are acceptable for persistent runny nose or allergy symptoms. If you need a cough suppressant, dextromethorphan is generally regarded as low-risk, but again, only at the recommended dose. Focus on managing symptoms to ensure adequate rest and hydration, both crucial in the final weeks of pregnancy.

Can you take cold medicine with pregnancy complications?

If you have pregnancy‑related complications such as preeclampsia, gestational hypertension, or a history of preterm labor, you should be especially cautious with decongestants, as they can raise blood pressure and potentially exacerbate these conditions. The Mayo Clinic advises that women with these conditions avoid pseudoephedrine and phenylephrine unless a specialist explicitly recommends it, given the potential for vasoconstriction and increased cardiovascular strain. Even a small increase in blood pressure can be significant in these delicate situations.

For thyroid disorders, certain antihistamines may interfere with medication absorption or thyroid function. If you have gestational diabetes, some liquid cold medicines contain sugar, which could impact blood glucose levels. Always inform your provider of all existing health issues, including any chronic conditions or pregnancy-specific complications, before taking any OTC cold product. Your provider can help you weigh the risks and benefits and suggest the safest options tailored to your individual health profile.

Natural cold remedies for pregnant women

Beyond the listed alternatives, many pregnant people find significant relief with simple, natural remedies that carry no medication risks. Warm broths (chicken or vegetable) provide hydration, electrolytes, and a comforting warmth that can ease congestion and soothe a sore throat. Ginger tea, made with fresh ginger slices, has mild anti‑inflammatory properties and can help with both a sore throat and nausea, a common pregnancy symptom. Adding honey and lemon to warm water or tea further enhances its soothing effects and provides vitamin C.

Steam inhalation is another highly effective natural remedy; simply lean over a bowl of hot water with a towel over your head, or take a hot shower, to help loosen mucus and clear nasal passages. Gargling with warm salt water can alleviate a sore throat. Elevating your head with extra pillows while sleeping can also help reduce post-nasal drip and congestion. Adequate rest, continuous hydration, and a balanced, nutrient-rich diet are fundamental supports for your immune system, helping your body fight off the cold naturally. For nasal congestion, consider a cool-mist humidifier in your bedroom, which adds moisture to the air and can ease breathing.

Cold medicine and pregnancy high blood pressure

Women who develop high blood pressure during pregnancy, including gestational hypertension or preeclampsia, must exercise extreme caution with cold medicines. Decongestants that contain pseudoephedrine or phenylephrine are particularly problematic, as their vasoconstrictive properties can further elevate blood pressure, potentially worsening your condition and increasing risks to both you and your baby. This is why most obstetric providers strongly advise against their use in such cases.

Instead, safe options for managing cold symptoms when you have high blood pressure include saline nasal sprays, humidifiers, and acetaminophen‑only products for fever and body aches. If you experience severe sinus pressure or headaches, always consult your provider. In some cases, low‑dose aspirin may be prescribed for blood‑pressure control or preeclampsia prevention, but this is a prescription medication and should only be used under close supervision by your doctor, never self-prescribed for cold symptoms.

Cold medicine side effects and risks

When considering cold medicine, it's important to be aware of both common, generally non‑serious side effects and rare, but more concerning, red-flag symptoms. Common, non‑serious side effects include:

• Drowsiness (especially with first‑generation antihistamines like diphenhydramine, which can impair your ability to drive or operate machinery)
• Dry mouth or throat, which can be uncomfortable and exacerbate existing pregnancy-related dry mouth
• Elevated heart rate or palpitations (more commonly associated with decongestants)
• Mild stomach upset, nausea, or constipation
• Dizziness or lightheadedness, particularly when standing up quickly

Red‑flag symptoms that require immediate medical attention, as they could indicate a serious reaction or complication, include:

• Severe headache, sudden changes in vision (such as blurred vision or seeing spots), or rapid swelling of the hands, face, or feet, which could be signs of dangerously elevated blood pressure or preeclampsia.
• Rapid swelling of the face, lips, tongue, or throat, hives, or difficulty breathing (wheezing, gasping for air), all indicative of a severe allergic reaction (anaphylaxis).
• Persistent high fever (above 101.5 °F or 38.6 °C) that does not respond to acetaminophen, as this could signal a more serious infection like the flu or pneumonia.
• Chest pain, shortness of breath, severe dizziness, or fainting.
• Unusual fetal movement patterns (significantly increased or decreased movement) after taking medication.

If any of these occur, contact your obstetric provider or seek emergency care right away. Trust your instincts; if something feels wrong, it's always best to get it checked out.

Safer alternatives

When you're pregnant and battling a cold, prioritizing non-pharmacological remedies can provide comfort without the worry of medication exposure. Here are some highly recommended safer alternatives:

• Honey – A natural cough suppressant, honey coats the throat and reduces cough frequency. A teaspoon straight or mixed in warm tea can provide significant relief.
• Lemon tea – Warm lemon tea with honey adds soothing warmth, provides vitamin C, and the steam helps clear nasal passages.
• Echinacea – Some studies suggest mild immune support, but evidence for cold prevention/treatment in pregnancy is limited. Always consult your provider before using any herbal supplements, as not all are well-studied or safe.
• Saline nasal spray – This simple, non-medicated spray moistens nasal passages, thins mucus, and helps clear congestion without drug absorption.
• Humidifier – A cool-mist humidifier adds moisture to the air, easing congestion, soothing irritated airways, and preventing dry throat, especially overnight.
• Neti pot – Used with sterile saline solution (made with distilled or previously boiled water), a neti pot gently flushes out nasal irritants, allergens, and excess mucus, providing significant relief from congestion.
• Warm saltwater gargle – Dissolve half a teaspoon of salt in a glass of warm water and gargle for 30 seconds several times a day to soothe a sore throat and reduce inflammation.
• Elevate your head – Sleeping with your head slightly elevated using extra pillows can help reduce post-nasal drip and make breathing easier, especially if congestion is worse at night.

Related items – safety at a glance

Myth vs. fact

Myth: All cold medicines are unsafe in pregnancy.

Fact: Many OTC cold products, especially those containing only acetaminophen and mild antihistamines, are considered safe when used at recommended doses and after consulting with a healthcare provider. The key is understanding the specific ingredients.

Myth: If a cold medicine is “pregnancy‑friendly,” you can take it any time.

Fact: Safety can vary significantly by trimester; decongestants are best avoided early in pregnancy and used cautiously later, while NSAIDs are strictly contraindicated after 20 weeks. Always re-evaluate medication choices as your pregnancy progresses.

Myth: Natural remedies are always safer than OTC meds.

Fact: While many natural remedies are indeed safe, some herbal products (e.g., high‑dose herbal extracts, certain essential oils) lack robust safety data in pregnancy and could potentially pose risks. Always discuss any natural or herbal remedy with your provider before use.

Myth: If it's sold over-the-counter, it must be safe for everyone, including pregnant women.

Fact: OTC medications are widely available but are not universally safe for all populations. Pregnant individuals have unique physiological considerations that require careful review of all ingredients, even in seemingly benign products. Always read labels and consult your doctor.

Key takeaways

• Cold medicine safe for pregnancy depends on the specific ingredient, dosage, and trimester.
• Acetaminophen‑based combos are the most widely accepted and preferred option for fever and mild pain during pregnancy.
• Decongestants (pseudoephedrine, phenylephrine) should be avoided in the first trimester and used only under medical advice later in pregnancy, especially if you have blood pressure concerns.
• NSAIDs like ibuprofen and naproxen are strictly contraindicated after 20 weeks of pregnancy due to significant risks to the fetal heart and kidneys.
• Non‑medicinal alternatives like honey, saline spray, humidifiers, and warm fluids can provide effective relief without drug exposure.
• Always discuss any cold medication, including OTC options and natural remedies, with your obstetric provider, especially if you have pregnancy complications or are taking other medications.
• When in doubt, opt for single-ingredient products to target specific symptoms and minimize unnecessary drug exposure.

Frequently asked questions

Can I take cold medicine while breastfeeding?

Yes, most OTC cold medicines that contain acetaminophen and low‑dose, non-sedating antihistamines (like loratadine) are considered compatible with breastfeeding. However, decongestants like pseudoephedrine can decrease milk supply and may cause infant irritability, so they are generally best avoided or used very sparingly. Always keep doses low and monitor your baby for any signs of excess sedation or fussiness.

What are the side effects of cold medicine during pregnancy?

Typical side effects include drowsiness (especially with certain antihistamines), dry mouth, mild heart‑rate increase (from decongestants), and stomach upset. Serious concerns such as high blood pressure, severe allergic reactions, or unusual fetal movement should prompt immediate medical attention. Always communicate any concerning symptoms to your obstetric provider.

How to relieve cold symptoms during pregnancy?

Start with non‑medicinal measures—stay well hydrated with water, broths, and honey-lemon tea; use saline nasal spray, a humidifier, and try warm salt water gargles. Get plenty of rest. If fever or severe congestion persists and significantly impacts your well-being, consult your provider about an acetaminophen‑based cold product, focusing on single-ingredient options.

Can pregnant women take decongestants?

Decongestants like pseudoephedrine are generally avoided in the first trimester due to theoretical risks to fetal development. Later in pregnancy, they should be used only under a doctor’s guidance, at the lowest effective dose, and with caution, especially if you have blood‑pressure concerns or a history of preeclampsia. Phenylephrine is generally considered less effective orally and less studied for pregnancy safety.

Is it safe to take cold medicine during early pregnancy?

In early pregnancy, during the critical period of organ development, it's safest to stick to acetaminophen‑only products for fever and pain. Avoid decongestants (pseudoephedrine, phenylephrine) and multi‑symptom combos unless your provider explicitly approves them. Prioritize non-pharmacological remedies like rest, fluids, and saline nasal spray during this time.

What are the risks of untreated colds during pregnancy?

Untreated common colds rarely cause direct fetal harm. However, severe or prolonged symptoms like high fever can increase the risk of certain birth defects, and significant congestion or cough can disrupt maternal sleep and nutrition, potentially affecting maternal health and energy levels, which are important for fetal growth. Managing symptoms safely is therefore still important for maternal well-being.

Can I take cold medicine with other medications while pregnant?

You can, but always check for potential interactions with your obstetrician or pharmacist. This is especially crucial if you are taking prescription medications for conditions like hypertension, thyroid disorders, diabetes, or antidepressants. Some cold medicine ingredients can interfere with these medications or exacerbate existing conditions. Always provide a complete list of all medications and supplements you are taking.

Can I use ibuprofen or naproxen for a cold while pregnant?

No, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) like ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin) and naproxen (Aleve) are generally not recommended during pregnancy. They are strictly contraindicated after 20 weeks of gestation due to the risk of serious fetal heart and kidney problems. While some providers might allow very limited use in the second trimester, it's safest to avoid them altogether and opt for acetaminophen for pain and fever relief.

What if my cold symptoms worsen or I suspect the flu?

If your cold symptoms worsen significantly, you develop a high fever, severe body aches, fatigue, or shortness of breath, contact your doctor immediately. These could be signs of a more serious infection like the flu (influenza), bronchitis, or pneumonia, which may require specific medical treatment, including antiviral medications for the flu, which are safe and important to take during pregnancy.

When to call your doctor

While most colds are mild and resolve on their own, certain symptoms warrant immediate medical attention, especially during pregnancy. If you experience any of the following while taking cold medicine or battling a cold, contact your obstetric provider right away:

• Persistent high fever (above 101.5 °F or 38.6 °C) that does not respond to acetaminophen.
• Severe headache, visual changes (blurred vision, seeing spots), or sudden/rapid swelling of the face, hands, or feet—these could be signs of preeclampsia or dangerously high blood pressure.
• Rapid heartbeat, chest pain, significant shortness of breath, or difficulty breathing.
• Allergic reaction symptoms such as hives, facial swelling, difficulty swallowing, or wheezing.
• Severe sore throat that makes swallowing difficult, accompanied by pus on tonsils, or swollen glands.
• Persistent, severe cough, especially if accompanied by chest pain or colored mucus.
• Unusual fetal movement patterns (significantly increased or decreased movement) after taking medication or due to illness.
• Symptoms that worsen significantly after a few days, or do not improve within 7-10 days.

These signs may indicate a more serious infection, a reaction to the medication, or an underlying pregnancy complication that needs prompt evaluation. Always keep your provider’s contact information handy and don't hesitate to reach out if you're concerned. This information is for educational purposes only and is not a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment.

References

1. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. “Medication Use During Pregnancy.” ACOG Committee Opinion, 2022.
2. National Health Service (UK). “Cold and flu medicines in pregnancy.” NHS, 2023.
3. Food and Drug Administration. “Pregnancy and Lactation Labeling (Drugs).” FDA, 2021.
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Common Colds: When to Seek Care.” CDC, 2022.
5. Mayo Clinic. “Cold medicines and pregnancy: What’s safe?” Mayo Clinic, 2023.
6. World Health Organization. “Guidelines on the use of medicines in pregnancy.” WHO, 2020.
7. Briggs, G. G., Freeman, R. K., & Yaffe, S. J. (2022). Drugs in Pregnancy and Lactation: A Reference Guide to Fetal and Neonatal Risk (12th ed.). Wolters Kluwer.